Francesco A. Morriello, PhD, FRHistS is an Assistant Professor in the Book and Media Studies Program at St. Michael’s College, University of Toronto. His research explores the ways by which culture shapes and is shaped by print material and visual media. He currently teaches classes on the history of fortune telling and revolutionary print and broadcast media. His first book, Messengers of Empire: Print and Revolution in the Atlantic World was published by Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment in 2023 and was shortlisted for the 2024 Literary Encyclopedia Book Prize.
If you tune in to the news, you will find that there is a lot of discussion about misinformation and disinformation, which are often categorized under the umbrella term, “fake news.” But have you ever wondered what, exactly, makes news “fake”? Is it the inclusion of false information, personal bias, the omission of information, or a combination of all three? With our world being flooded by information at every turn, be it social media, news websites, or TV shows (among many others), it is becoming increasingly difficult to parse out fact from fiction. However, this is not a new phenomenon. In fact, the origins of “fake news” can be traced all the way back to the emergence of newspapers in the early modern world, and far beyond that when taking into account rumours, conspiracy theories, and general manipulation.
But before we delve further into misinformation and disinformation, it is important to identify what these concepts are. Misinformation is false or inaccurate information, usually provided unintentionally. Disinformation, on the other hand, is false information that is intentionally circulated to mislead people. The latter can range from misstating facts to widescale propaganda campaigns. Central to the circulation of both misinformation and disinformation are communications technologies, which amplify their reach, speed, and influence. Such technologies experienced a revolutionary shift in the 15th century with the invention of the Gutenberg Press, which allowed for the replication of information on a scale never seen before. In the following centuries, the printing press spread across land and sea, forever changing not only the means of information circulation, but the speed with which it occurred. And the latter could (and did) lead to problems, especially when the information was disseminated before it could be verified.
In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation sent shockwaves across Europe, as it fundamentally changed the religious landscape through the splintering of Christianity. While the Catholic Church strove to control the publication and circulation of information, the printing press allowed for the production of a specific print medium that escaped their grasp much easier than books: the pamphlet. Martin Luther and his followers quickly realized the power of pamphlets, as they were quick to produce, could be published anonymously, and above all, could reach the masses far more effectively. Indeed, the pamphlet operated in the same vein as social media platforms today. However, like these platforms, the pamphlet was also used to spread both misinformation and disinformation in a variety of different ways. For example, they were used spread exaggerated fears of conspiracies, such as the idea that Catholics were plotting to violently suppress Protestants, or that Protestants were seeking to overthrow the established social and political orders.
By the 17th and 18th centuries, pamphlets were joined by the newspaper as a primary means of spreading news and information. However, these papers were largely controlled by the reigning monarchs, with printers requiring licenses in order to publish them. Authorities monitored and inspected the papers, which often featured phrases such as “Published by Authority” or “By the King’s Printer.” Those who dared print information that went against the monarch or empire, regardless of whether or not it was factually accurate, faced consequences that included fines, confiscation of printing equipment, imprisonment, or worse. As such, the press served as an extension of the incumbent governments rather than as a means of holding them accountable. Then came the Age of Revolutions, which sought to upend this practice in pursuit of the freedom of the press on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. But in so doing, “fake news” was not far behind. During the American Revolution, a series of forged documents now known as the “Spurious Letters” were alleged to have been written by George Washington, claiming that he expressed doubt over the feasibility of the rebellion and sought reconciliation with the British Crown. Despite being instantly recognized as fake by Washington’s inner circle, this didn’t stop the forgeries’ contents from being circulated in pamphlets and newspapers, where they were used as a political weapon in pursuit of undermining Washington’s commitment to the revolutionary cause.
With a surge in technological advancements, the 19th century witnessed a printing boom, allowing misinformation and disinformation to find a much wider audience. The sensationalist headlines of “yellow journalism” cleverly wove truth with fiction in order to capture people’s attention and maximize sales. The 20th century took this phenomenon to new heights with the popularization of radio and television, which had an even greater reach because it was no longer limited to the printed word. These media technologies truly transformed the world into what Marshall McLuhan termed a “global village”, as they allowed people to share information and experiences despite not being physically close to one another. But in doing so, this allowed for misinformation to flow like a river, sometimes unintentionally. For example, on the evening of October 30th, 1938, a live radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds caused widespread panic among listeners upon hearing reports of a Martian invasion in New Jersey. In reality, Orson Welles had adapted the H.G. Wells novel into a fake news bulletin, though this didn’t stop the frenzy from making national headlines the next day. The incident highlighted the power of media technologies in influencing public perception, sparking debates about media responsibility.
These debates have become extremely salient in the years since the invention of Internet and social media, where people around the world are bombarded by information at every turn, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The competition to break the latest news has never been fiercer, as now people can livestream events directly from their phones and air it to millions across the globe through numerous social media platforms. But in this race to spread the news, things can get overlooked, misunderstood, and only partially reported. Before a correction can be made, the misinformation (or disinformation) is already trending worldwide, with many believing it to be entirely accurate. The increasing reliance on social media for news has exposed the complexities of verifying real-time events. And now, we have arrived at a crossroads regarding how to distill truth from misinformation in all its forms, from mere click baiting to full-on propaganda. Further complicating the picture is the speed by which this misinformation is spread, which can have devastating effects, even after the truth finally catches up. As we enter the new era of information sharing with AI technology, consumers of the news will have to be more vigilant than ever to sift through misinformation, disinformation, and everything in between to determine what, exactly, constitutes “fake news.” In this regard, a critical mind is crucial to not only pinpointing it, but also determining where it comes from, and perhaps above all, why it is being circulated to begin with.
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